Action on Socio-Economic and Religious Differentials

The Government has been taking a number of steps as a follow-up action on the recommendations of the Sachar Committee. This follow-up action is basically in tune with the  basic tenet of the Government to improve the socio-economic conditions of the minority communities through affirmative action and inclusive development so that every citizen has equal opportunity to participate actively in building a vibrant nation. A large number of Ministries/Departments, including the Ministry of Minority Affaris, are involved in this effort. The status of implementation of the decisions taken by the Government on the recommendations of the Sachar Committee are:

Department of Financial Services

·    All public sector banks have been directed to open more branches in districts having a substantial minority population.  Since 2007-08, a total of 2448 bank branches have been opened in such areas up to March, 2011.

·    RBI revised its Master Circular on 5^th July, 2007 on priority sector lending (PSL) for improving credit facilities to minority communities. Rs.143396.70 crore have been provided to minorities up to March, 2011, which is 14.16% of total PSL.

·    District Consultative Committees (DCCs) of lead banks are regularly monitoring the disposal and rejection of loan applications for minorities.

·    To promote micro-finance among women, 5,87,088 accounts have been opened for minority women with Rs.3984.72 crore as micro-credit in 2010-11.

·    All public sector banks are organizing awareness campaigns in blocks/districts/towns with substantial minority population. In 2010-11, 1976 awareness campaigns were organized in such areas.

·    Lead banks have organized 1219 entrepreneurial development programmes (EDPs) in blocks/districts/towns with substantial minority population.

Ministry of Human Resource Development

·    Under the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme 426 KGBVs have been made operational in minority concentration districts (MCDs). 64 KGBVs have been sanctioned for MCDs in 2010-11.

·    State Governments have been advised to accord priority to setting up new / upgraded schools under Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) in minority concentration areas while appraising proposals under this scheme. In 2009-10 and 2010-11 309 and 314 new secondary schools were approved respectively for MCDs.

·    One model college each would be set up in 374 educationally backward districts (EBDs) in the country of which, 67 are in identified minority concentration districts.

·    Under the sub-mission on polytechnics, 57 districts out of 90 minority concentration districts for setting up of polytechnics in un-served and under-served districts. So far, Rs.140.66 crore have been released for setting up polytechnics in 37 Minority Concentration Districts (MCDs).

·    Preference is given by University Grants Commission for provision of girls’ hostels in universities and colleges in the areas where there is concentration of minorities especially Muslims. UGC has sanctioned 239 Women’s hostels and released Rs.64.66 crore during 11^th Plan in 90 minority concentration districts.

·    The Area Intensive & Madarsa Modernisation Programme has been revised and bifurcated into two schemes. A Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madarsas (SPQEM) has been launched.  In 2010-11, Rs.101.47 crore was provided for assisting 11382 teachers in 5045 Madaras for 12 States.

·    Another scheme, bifurcated out of Area Intensive & Madarsa Modernisation Programme, called Infrastructure Development of Private aided/unaided Minority Institutes (IDMI) has been launched for providing infrastructure to minority institutes. In 2010-11, Rs.22.98 crore was released for assisting 124 institutions in 10 states.

·    For subsequent access to higher education and employment, the certificates issued by the State Madarsa Boards, whose certificates and qualifications have been granted equivalence by the corresponding State Boards, would be considered equivalent by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Council of Board of School Education in India (COBSE) or/and by any other school examination board.

·    Academies for professional development of Urdu medium teachers have been set up at three Central Universities namely, Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Milia Islamia University and Maulana Azad National Urdu University.

·    Under the revised scheme for Financial Assistance for Appointment of Urdu Language Teachers, financial assistance is provided for appointment of Urdu teachers to any locality where more than 25% of the population is from Urdu speaking community in pursuance of the Prime Minister’s new 15 Point Programme. In 2010-11, Rs.5.08 lakh sanctioned to Orissa for appointment of 25 Urdu teachers and Rs.24.96 lakh to Kerala for honorarium to 208 Urdu teachers.

·    All State Governments/UT administrations have been advised for using existing school buildings and community buildings as study centres for school children.

·    National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has prepared text books for all classes in the light of the National Curriculum Framework-2005.

·    Thirty five universities have started centers for studying social exclusion and inclusive policy for minorities and scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.  Besides, 1280 Centres of Equal Opportunity (CEOs) have been established in 51 universities during 2009-10 and 1345 and 1367 such centres are proposed to be established during 2010-11 and 2011-12 respectively.

Ministry of Minority Affairs

·    Continuous efforts are being made by the Government to set up Equal Opportunity Commission (EOC) for deprived groups by an enactment. 

·    A  Bill to amend Waqf Act, 1995 was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 27^th April, 2010 and passed on 7^th May, 2010. It was then referred to the Rajya Sabha. The Bill has now been referred to the Select Committee of the Rajya Sabha. Several sittings of the Select Committee have been held.

·    The Government has accorded in-principle approval for restructuring of National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (NMDFC). A consultancy firm has been appointed to work out the details for restructuring of NMDFC.

·    An Inter-ministerial Task Force constituted to devise an appropriate strategy and action plan for developing 338 identified towns having substantial minority population rapidly in a holistic manner submitted its report on 8^th November, 2007.  The concerned Ministries/Departments have been advised to give priority in the implementation of their schemes in these 338 towns.

·    Four scholarship/Fellowship schemes for students from the minority communities have been launched. All these schemes provide for earmarking 30% of scholarships for girl students. Under these schemes, since 2007-08, a total of 78.68 lakh scholarships/Fellowships have been awarded to the students belonging to minority communities. The scheme wise break up of total numbers of scholarships/Fellowships awarded is- 

Ø  Pre-matric scholarship scheme from class-I to X: A total number of 66.63 lakh scholarships have been awarded since 2008-09.

Ø Post- matric scholarship scheme from class XI to PhD: A total number of 10.85 lakh scholarships have been awarded since 2007-08.

Ø Merit-cum-means scholarship scheme for technical and professional courses at under-graduate and post-graduate levels: A total number of 120,491 scholarships have been awarded since 2007-08.

Ø A fellowship scheme called Maulana Azad National Fellowship scheme for M.Phil and Ph.D. scholars has been launched and 757 fellowships have been awarded to fellows/students from minority communities during 2009-10.

·    The corpus of Maulana Azad Education Foundation (MAEF), which stood at Rs.100 crore, now stands at Rs.700.00 crore. There is a provision of Rs.50 crore in the budget for 2011-12 to raise the corpus to Rs.750 crore. The foundation has given financial assistance of Rs.139 crore to 1063 non-governmental organizations for promotion of education since inception. It has also awarded 59303 meritorious scholarships to girl students with a total disbursement of Rs.69 crore since 2003-04.

·    A revised coaching and allied scheme was launched in 2006-07. 4845 students   belonging to minority communities have benefited under this scheme in 2010-11.

·    A Multi-sectoral Development Programme (MsDP) was launched in 90 identified minority concentration districts in 2008-09.  The Ministry has so far released Rs.2162.03 crore to the States/UTs. The budget allocation for 2011-12 is Rs.1219 crore.

·    A multi-media campaign for effective dissemination of information to its target beneficiaries has been taken up through print, radio and TV.

Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation

·    A National Data Bank, to compile data on the various socio-economic and basic amenities parameters for socio-religious communities, has been set up in the Ministry.

Planning Commission

·    An autonomous Assessment & Monitoring Authority (AMA), to analyse data collected for taking appropriate and corrective policy decisions, has been set up in the Planning Commission.

·    A comprehensive institutional structure for fostering skill development has been set up in Planning Commission to address the skill development needs of the country including minorities. It includes National Council on Skill Development, National Skill Development Coordination Board and a National Skill Development Corporation.

Department of Personnel and Training

·    A training module has been developed by the Indian Institute of Public Administration, for sensitization of government officials. The module has been sent to the Central/ State Training Institutes for implementation and it has been included in their training calendar. Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration (LBSNAA) has prepared a module for sensitization of organized civil services and it has been incorporated in their training programme.

·    State Governments and Union Territory Administrations have been advised by Department of Personnel & Training for posting of Muslim police personnel in thanas and Muslim health personnel and teachers in Muslim concentration areas.

·    Guidelines for giving special consideration in the recruitment of minorities in Government, railways, nationalized   banks and public sector enterprises was issued by the Department of Personnel and Training on 8th January, 2007. Since then, the annual recruitment of minorities has been monitored regularly on annual basis.

Ministry of Home Affairs

·    A High Level Committee, set up to review the Delimitation Act, has considered the concerns expressed in the Sachar Committee report and submitted its report.

·    Revised guidelines on Communal Harmony have been issued. A working group in National Advisory Council (NAC) has drafted a Bill titled “Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence (Access to Justice & Reparations) Bill, 2011. Comments of the Ministry have been given already to NAC.

Ministry of Urban Development

·    Governments of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, Lakshadweep, Puducherry and Kerala have given exemption to Waqf Board properties from Rent Control Act.

Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation

·    For facilitating the flow of funds under the Jawarharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) to towns and cities, having a substantial concentration of minority population, necessary steps have been taken to ensure that Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for such towns and cities include adequate provisions for minorities.

Ministry of Labour and Employment

·    An Act has been passed by the Parliament for providing social security to workers in the un- organized sector, which, inter- alia, includes home based workers.

Ministry of Culture

·    Meetings of circles of Archeological Survey of India have been held with State Waqf Boards to review the list of waqfs which are under the Archeological Survey of India.

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

·    Dissemination of information regarding health and family welfare schemes has been undertaken in regional languages in minority concentration areas.

Ministry of Panchayati Raj

·    State Governments have been advised by Ministry of Panchayati Raj and Ministry of Urban Development to improve representation of minorities in local bodies.

Schemes for Agricultural Labourers

                The Union Labour & Employment Minister Shri Mallikarjun Kharge has informed the Rajya Sabha that Aam Admi Bima Yojana (AABY) was launched on 02.10.2007 with a view to providing insurance cover to the head of family or one earning member of  rural landless households.  The member should be aged between 18 years and 59 years. Under the scheme, the head of the family or an earning member of the family is eligible to receive the benefits of Rs. 30,000/-  in case of natural death,  Rs.75,000/- accidental death, Rs. 75000/- for total  permanent disability (loss of two eyes or two limbs or loss of one eye or one limb in accident) and Rs. 37,500/- for partial permanent disability ( loss of one eye and one limb in accident).  The  premium under the scheme is Rs. 200/- per member per annum equally shared in the ratio of 50:50 between Central Government and respective State Government/ Union Territory.   AABY also includes Shiksha Sahyog Yojana (SSY), a free add-on benefit of scholarship of Rs. 100 per month up to a maximum of two children of the beneficiaries studying between class IX and XII. A Statement showing State-wise number of lives covered, including Madhya Pradesh, under Aam Admi Bima Yojana is annexed.

STATE-WISE COVERAGE UNDER AAM ADMI BIMA YOJANA AS ON 31.07.2011

Sl. No.	State/ Union Territory	Lives Covered
1.	Himachal Pradesh	5,000
2.	Andhra Pradesh	72,92,606
3.	Maharashtra	16,21,671
4.	Gujarat	8,60,053
5.	Chandigarh	1,297
6.	Jammu & Kashmir	91,740
7.	Madhya Pradesh	13,98,376
8.	Bihar	19,21,604
9.	Jharkhand	53,231
10.	Karnataka	7,45,843
11.	Kerala	3,93,160
12.	Uttar Pradesh	22,34,849
13.	Chhattisgarh	3,34,696
14	West Bengal	6,62,987
15	Puducherry	1,48,452
16	Punjab	19,013
17	Assam	46,904
Total		1,78,31,482

National Electronic Mission

The Minister of State for Communication and Information Technology, Shri Sachin Pilot today informed Lok Sabha in written reply to a question that the Government proposes to set up National Electronic Mission on the recommendation of Task Force on Information Technology. The Task Force has made 198 recommendations.

The Task Force has suggested several measures for rapid growth of the industry and has outlined a roadmap for the industry in the medium and long-term. According to the Task Force, with suitable policy initiatives in place, the software and services sector has the potential to grow from USD 58.7 billion in 2009 to USD 105 billion by 2014 and USD 225 billion by 2020, with exports growing from USD 46.3 billion in 2009 to USD 82 billion by 2014 and USD 175 billion by 2020. Similarly, the electronics hardware production in the country is projected to grow from USD 20 billion in 2009 to USD 100 billion by 2014 and USD 400 billion by 2020. This includes experts of USD 4 billion in 2009 growing to USD 15 billion by 2014 and USD 80 billion by 2020.

In the software and services sector the employment generation (direct and indirect) is projected to grow from 10.2 million in 2009 to 15.9 million by 2014 and 30.0 million by 2020 and is electronics hardware sector, it is projected to grow from 4.4 million in 2009 to 16.1 million by 2014 and 27.8 million by 2020.

E-Governance

The Minister of State for Communication and Information Technology, Shri Sachin Pilot today informed in written reply to a question in Lok Sabha that the Common Service Centers (CSCs) are delivering Government to Citizen (G2C) and Business to Citizen (B2C) Services.

The Common Services Centers Scheme is being implemented under a three tier Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework under which Service Center Agencies are (Private Sector entities and NGOs) are responsible for setting up of CSCs. Government provides revenue viability gap funding for four years. Services Centre Agencies are selected by the States through a competitive bidding process. The Service Center Agencies (SCAs) run the CSCs through Village Level Entrepreneurs (VLEs).

As on 31st July, 2011, around 96,000 CSCs have been rolled out which are operated by Village Level Entrepreneurs.

It has been reported that some VLEs are impacted due to financial constraints. Department of Information Technology has advised the State Government to expedite delivery of Government to Citizen (G2C) services through CSCs.

Economic Development and Environment

Economic development without environmental considerations can cause serious environmental damage, in turn impairing the quality of life of present and future generations. Such environmental degradation imposes a cost on the society and needs to be explicitly factored into economic planning, with necessary remedial measures incorporated. The challenge of sustainable development thus requires integration of the country's quest for economic development with its environmental concerns.

Environment management in India has, over the years, recognized these sustainable development concerns. The National Environment Policy 2006 has attempted to mainstream environmental concerns in all our developmental activities. It underlines that “while conservation of environmental resources is necessary to secure livelihoods and well being of all, the most secure basis for conservation is to ensure that people dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from the fact of conservation, than from degradation of the resource”.

A few recent initiatives
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has notified the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 in order to ensure that there is no further degradation of wetlands. The rules specify activities that are harmful to wetlands, such as industrialization, construction, dumping of untreated waste and reclamation and prohibit these activities in the wetlands. Other activities, such as harvesting and dredging may be carried out in the wetlands but only with prior permission from the concerned authorities.

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010 came into force on October 18, 2010. As per the provisions of the NGT Act 2010, the National Environment Appellate Authority (NEAA), established under the NEAA Act, 1997, stands dissolved and the cases pending before NEAA stand transferred to the NGT. The Act provides for the establishment of a NGT for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources, including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Coastal ecosystems are a critical reservoir of our biodiversity and provide protection from natural disasters such as floods and tsunamis and are a source of livelihood to hundreds of millions of families. Hence, as a major national initiative in this direction, the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification has been published in the gazette of India on January 6, 2011.

The Government of India and World Bank have signed a loan agreement for the implementation of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project, which will be implemented at a total cost of Rs 1156 crore. The World Bank will contribute an amount of Rs 897 crore (77.7 per cent), the Government of India Rs 177 Crore (15.4 per cent), and the States Rs 80 Crore (6.9 per cent). This project is for a period of five years and it is estimated that it will benefit 3.56 crore people directly 6.30 crore indirectly.

Climate Change
Climate Change, as a global environmental problem has been receiving intense political attention at domestic and international levels. ‘Climate change’ means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity, that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Increasing levels of fossil fuel burning and land use changes have emitted, and are continuing to emit, greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) into the earth’s atmosphere. This increasing level of emissions of greenhouse gases has caused a rise in the amount of heat from the sun trapped in the earth’s atmosphere, heat that would normally be radiated back into space. This has led to the greenhouse effect, resulting in climate change.

Besides, Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions have risen sharply since 1945. As per a working paper published by the World Resources Institute, total GHGs were estimated at 44,153 MtCo2 equivalents (million metric tons) in 2005. This is the most recent year for which comprehensive emissions data are available for every major gas and sector. Total global emissions grew by 12.7 per cent between 2000 and 2005, an annual average of 2.4 per cent. CO2 is the predominant gas accounting for 77 per cent of world GHG emissions in 2005, followed by methane (15 per cent) and nitrous oxide (7 per cent). North America accounted for 18 per cent of world GHG emissions, China for 16 per cent, and the EU for 12 per cent in 2005. India's share stood at 4 per cent in 2005.

The issue of climate change is now placed firmly on national and international agendas, subject to scrutiny by public and media, and is even shaping the strategies of a number of businesses.

Internationally, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (the Convention) was set up in 1992 and entered into force in 1994. This was a crucial step in putting in place the institutions and processes for the world’s Governments to take coordinated and effective action.

The Convention laid the groundwork for concerted international action, which in 1997 led to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol containing a legally binding quantitative time-bound target for developed countries. The Kyoto Protocol set a target for developed countries (individually or jointly) to reduce overall emissions by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the first commitment period, 2008 to 2012. Recognizing that relying on domestic measures alone to meet the target could be onerous, the Kyoto Protocol offers considerable flexibility through three mechanisms: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), and Emissions Trading (ET). Through the CDM, industrial countries can finance mitigation projects in developing countries contributing to their sustainable development.
Credits received from such projects can be used to meet commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Through JI, industrialized countries acquire emissions credit by financially supporting projects in other industrialized countries.

Currently, international actions for addressing climate change are being pursued under the Bali Action Plan and the mandate of the Kyoto Protocol. The 15th CoP held at Copenhagen in December 2009 made some advance in the form of the ‘Copenhagen Accord’, which reflects the political understanding reached by a select group of countries. However, this was only ‘noted’ and not adopted by the Parties to the Convention. The recent negotiations held at Cancun during November 29 -  December 11, 2010, have resulted in a set of decisions that cover various areas of action, for example mitigation, adaptation, technology and finance as outlined in the Bali Action Plan, while agreeing to work towards an ambitious target of emissions reduction under the Kyoto Protocol.

India's Greenhouse Emissions
Although India ranks in the top five in terms of GHG emissions, the per capita emissions are much lower compared to those of the developed countries, even if the historical emissions are excluded. Its high level of emissions is due to large populace, geographical size and large economy. The most recent data available for India are the assessment carried out by the Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) in May 2010.

The key results of the assessment are that the total net GHG emissions from India in 2007 were 1727.71 million tons of CO2 equivalent (eq.), of which carbon dioxide emissions were 1221.76 million tons; methane 20.56 million tons; and nitrous oxide 0.24 million tons. In 1994, the total net GHG emissions for India were 1228.54 million tons of CO2 eq. This represents a compounded annual growth rate of 2.9 per cent during the period 1994 to 2007. GHG emissions from the energy, industry, agriculture, and waste sectors in 2007 constituted 58 per cent, 22 per cent, 17 per cent, and 3 per cent of the net CO2 eq. emissions respectively. India's per capita CO2 eq. emissions including land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) were 1.5 tons per capita in 2007.

Impacts of Climate Change in India
Climate change has enormous implications for the natural resources and livelihoods of the people. It will have wide-ranging effects on the environmental and socio-economic and related sectors. Various studies indicate that the key sectors in India such as the agriculture, water, natural ecosystem, biodiversity, and health are vulnerable to climate change. This is happening precisely at a time when it is confronted with huge development imperatives. The Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) released a report in November 2010 on assessment of the impact of climate change on key sectors and regions of India in the 2030s. The assessment covers four key sectors of the Indian economy, namely agriculture, water, natural ecosystems and biodiversity, and health in four climate sensitive regions, namely the Himalayan region, the Western Ghats, the Coastal Area, and the North-east region.

The report warns of impacts such as sea-level rise, increase in cyclonic intensity, reduced crop yield in rain-fed crops, stress on livestock, reduction in milk productivity, increased flooding, and spread of malaria. This calls for urgency of action in reducing vulnerability to adverse impacts of climate change and enhancing adaptive capacity through sector-specific interventions and efforts.

India's Strategies
India’s total CO2 emissions are about 4 per cent of total global CO2 emissions and the energy intensity of India’s output has been falling with improvements in energy efficiency, autonomous technological changes, and economical use of energy. India’s climate modeling studies show that even with 8-9 per cent gross domestic product (GDP) growth every year for the next decade or two, its per capita emissions will be around 3-3.5 tonnes of CO2eq. by 2030, as compared to the present 1-1.2 tonnes. These are well below developed country averages by any estimation.

India’s determination in addressing climate change is evident from the fact that an indicative target of increasing energy efficiency by 20 per cent by 2016-17 is already included in the Eleventh Five Year Plan. This has now been supplemented with the domestic mitigation goal of reducing emissions intensity of the GDP by 20-25 per cent of the 2005 level by 2020 through proactive policies. The resources for the measures required to achieve this objective will need to be mobilized from various sources, including the national planning process. Studies in respect of a low carbon strategy for development aimed at ensuring inclusive growth are being conducted with the aim of including this as one of the key pillars in the Twelfth Five Year Plan.

Second, India is taking conscious steps to diversify the energy fuel mix such as setting up of 20,000 MW of solar power-generating capacity by 2022, doubling the present share of 3 per cent of nuclear power in the energy mix over the next decade, putting in place a major market-based programme to stimulate energy efficiency, imposing clean energy cess on coal for funding research and development (R&D) of clean energy technologies, even though coal will continue to play a key role in our future energy strategy, and aggressively expanding the use of natural gas in power production.

Third, India has been pursuing aggressive strategies for forestry and coastal management to increase the quality and quantity of forest cover and has launched a major new programme on coastal zone management to address the adaptation challenges facing over 300 million people in our country who live in vulnerable areas near our coast.

As part of its international obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) India periodically prepares the National Communication (NATCOM) that gives an inventory of the GHG emissions in India, assesses the vulnerability and impacts, and makes appropriate recommendations regarding social, economic and technological measures for addressing climate change.

India's strategy for enhancing its adaptive capacity to climate variability is reflected in many of its social and economic development programmes. For developing countries like India, adaptation ultimately boils down to assisting the vulnerable population during exigencies and empowering them to build their lives and cope with uncertainties in the long run. Several of India's social-sector schemes, with their emphases on livelihood security and welfare of the weaker sections, aim to do just that. India implements a series of Central sector and centrally sponsored schemes under different Ministries/Departments aimed at achieving social and economic development. Many of these schemes contain elements (objectives and targets) that are decidedly geared to adaptation. In other words, there is substantial adaptation orientation in many of the sectoral schemes currently under operation. An exercise has been carried out to measure the expenditure on adaptation-related programmes with critical adaptation components: (a) crop improvement and research, (b) poverty alleviation and livelihood preservation, (c) drought proofing and flood control, (d) risk financing, (e) forest conservation, (f) health, and (g) rural education and infrastructure. It has been found that India's expenditure on these adaptation-oriented schemes has increased from 1.45 per cent of GDP in the year 2000-01 to 2.84 per cent during 2009-10. This is a fairly impressive level of spending and is an obvious reflection of the multiplicity of economic and social welfare programmes under implementation in India.

India has announced a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in June, 2008 which incorporates its vision of sustainable development and the steps it must take to realize it.

Climate Change Financing
Climate change is a complex policy issue with major implications in terms of finances for addressing mitigation of GHG emissions, on the one hand, and coping with the adverse impacts of climate change on the community and population, ecosystem, economy and livelihood, on the other.

All actions to address climate change ultimately involve costs. Funding is vital in order for countries like India to design and implement adaptation and mitigation plans and projects.

Lack of funding is a large impediment to implementing adaptation plans. Article 4 of the Convention states that developed countries shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties in addressing climate change. The funds that are currently available under the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol are small compared to the magnitude of the need assessed by many studies. The UNFCCC has estimated a requirement of US$ 200-210 billion in additional investment in 2030 to return GHG emissions to current level. Further, additional investment needed worldwide for adaptation is estimated to be US$ 60-182 billion in 2030 by UNFCCC, inclusive of an expenditure of US$ 28-67 billion in developing countries. As various estimates point to the enormity of funds to address climate change, developing countries including India have been arguing that a global mechanism for generating and accounting for additional resources, mainly from public sources, is essential for meeting the long-term finance requirements for adaptation and mitigation. There should be a multilateral financial mechanism under the Convention that should be set up with resources provided by developed countries on the basis of assessed contributions.

One of the important outcomes of the Cancun Agreements from the finance point of view is the decisions on ‘fast start finance, long-term finance, and Green Climate Fund’. At Cancun, it was decided to set up a ‘Green Climate Fund’, to be designated as an operating entity of the Financial Mechanism of the Convention under Article 11. The Green Climate Fund is accountable to and functions under the guidance of the CoP. The Fund will support environment-related projects, programmes, policies, and other activities in developing countries.

While the outcomes in Cancun on Climate Fund, Technology Mechanism, and Adaptation Framework and Forestry (REDD+) are welcome, further work is needed on strengthening of weak mitigation pledges by developed countries, preventing unilateral trade actions in the name of climate change, and continuing a dialogue on intellectual property rights as part of technology development and transfer efforts. Moreover, a successful global effort for addressing climate change must be built on sound principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities. Equity in terms of equitable access to global atmospheric resources should define the pathway to attainment of a long-term goal in line with the broad findings of science.

Besides, the increasing importance of climate-related issues should not shake the foundations of our inclusive growth strategy. Careful planning and customized policies are needed to ensure that the green growth strategies do not result in a slow growth strategy.

Eight National Missions:

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): 
The government has launched the JNNSM in January 2010 with a target of 20,000 MW grid solar power (based on solar thermal power- generating systems and solar photovoltaic [SPV] technologies), 2000 MW of off-grid capacity by 2022. The Mission will be implemented in three phases. The first phase will last three years (up to March 2013), the second till March 2017, and the third till March 2022. The Government has also approved the implementation of the first phase of the Mission (up to March 2013) and the target to set up 1100 MW grid-connected solar plants including 100 MW of rooftop and small solar plants and 200 MW capacity-equivalent off-grid solar applications and a 7 million sq.m solar thermal collector area in the first phase of the Mission, till 2012-13.

Energy Conservation and Efficiency: 
The objective of the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is to achieve growth with ecological sustainability by devising cost-effective strategies for end- use demand-side management. The Ministry of Power and Bureau of Energy Efficiency have been entrusted with the task of preparing the implementation plan for the NMEEE and up-scaling the efforts to create and sustain market for energy efficiency to unlock investment of around Rs 74,000 crore. The Mission is likely to achieve about 23 million tons oil-equivalent of fuel savings—in coal, gas, and petroleum product—by 2014-15, along with an expected avoided capacity addition of over 19,000 MW. The carbon dioxide emission reduction is estimated to be 98.55 million tons annually.

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC):
The NMSKCC has been launched with the broad objectives of mapping of the knowledge and data resources relevant to climate change and positioning of a data-sharing policy framework for building strategic knowledge among the various arms of the Government, identification of knowledge gaps, networking of knowledge institutions after investing critical mass of physical, intellectual, and policy infrastructure resources, creation of new dedicated centres within the existing institutional framework, building of international cooperation on science and technology for climate change agenda through strategic alliances and assistance for the formulation of policies for a sustained developmental agenda.

National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE):
  The broad objectives of the NMSHE include: understanding the complex processes affecting the Himalayan ecosystem and evolving suitable management and policy measures for sustaining and safeguarding it, creating and building capacities in different domains, networking of knowledge institutions engaged in research and development of a coherent data base on the Himalayan ecosystem, detecting and decoupling natural and anthropogenic-induced signals of global environmental changes in mountain ecosystems, studying traditional knowledge systems for community participation in adaptation, mitigation, and coping mechanisms inclusive of farming and traditional health care systems, and developing regional cooperation with neighbouring countries, to generate a strong data base through monitoring and analysis so as to eventually create a knowledge base for policy interventions.

National Water Mission: 
The objectives of the National Water Mission are 'conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources management'. The goals of the Mission are a comprehensive water data base in the public domain, assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources, promotion of citizen and State actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation, focused attention to overexploited areas, increasing water use efficiency by 20 per cent, and promotion of basin-level integrated water resources management.

Green India Mission:  
The Mission aims at responding to climate change through a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures. These measures include enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests and other ecosystems, adaption of vulnerable species/ecosystems to the changing climate, and adaptation of forest-dependent communities. The objectives of the Mission are increased forest/tree cover on 5 million ha of forest/non-forest lands and improved quality of forest cover on another 5 million ha (a total of 10 million ha), improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services, carbon sequestration as a result of treatment of 10 million ha), increased forest-based livelihood income for about 3 million households living in and around the forest, and enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 55 million tonnes in the year 2020.

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH):  
The NMSH seeks to promote sustainability of habitats through improvements in energy efficiency in building and urban planning, improved management of solid and liquid waste including recycling and power generation, modal shift towards public transport, and conservation. It also seeks to improve ability of habitats to adapt to climate change by improving resilience of infrastructure, community- based disaster management, and measures for improving advance warning systems for extreme weather events.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture:
The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) seeks to address issues regarding 'sustainable agriculture' in the context of risks associated with climate change by devising appropriate adaptation and mitigation strategies for ensuring food security, enhancing livelihood opportunities, and contributing to economic stability at national level. Under this Mission, the adaptation and mitigation measures would be mainstreamed in research and development activities, absorption of improved technology and best practices, creation of physical and financial infrastructure and institutional framework, facilitating access to information and promoting capacity building. While promotion of dry-land agriculture would receive prime importance by way of developing suitable drought- and pest-resistant crop varieties and ensuring adequacy of institutional support, the Mission would also expand its coverage to rain-fed areas for integrating farming systems with livestock and fisheries so that agriculture continues to grow in a sustainable manner.

India’s Urban Scenario

Contrary to popular concepts of a predominantly rural India, an increasingly larger percentage of Indian population today lives in the urban areas. India's urban population is now second largest in the world after China, and is higher than the total urban population of all countries put together barring China, USA and Russia. Over the last fifty years, while the country's population has grown by 2.5 times, in the urban areas it has grown by five times.

In 1947, only 60 million people (15 per cent of the total population at that time) lived in urban areas. India’s urban population grew from the 290 million reported in the 2001 Census to an estimated 340 million in 2008 (30 percent of the total population) and it could soar to 590 million plus (40 percent of the population) by 2030. This urban expansion will happen at a speed quite unlike anything India has seen before. The steep growth in number of people living is partly due to the skewed development that has led to proliferation of commercial activities, and greater job opportunities in towns and cities. Facilities like health and education, and infrastructure like roadways, telecommunication, airports, railways and ports are also many times better in urban areas.

In spite of its prominent role in Indian economy, urban India faces serious problems due to population pressure, deterioration in the physical environment and quality of life. According to estimates, nearly one third of the urban India lives below poverty line. About 15 percent of the urbanites do not have access to safe drinking water and about 50 percent are not covered by sanitary facilities.

Traffic congestion has assumed critical dimensions in many metropolitan cities due to massive increase in the number of personal vehicles, inadequate road space and lack of public transport. There is a huge and widening gap between demand and supply of essential services and infrastructure. Urban poor in India are forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums, lacking in basic amenities. Slums have grown in almost all major cities due to inability of major chunks of population to afford accommodation in planned areas of the cities.

The five fold explosive growth in urban India has resulted in serious infrastructure constraints. Water, transport, housing, electricity, health and sanitation are some of the areas of concern. Infrastructure to meet these requirements calls for huge investments.

The Central Public Health Engineering (CPHEEO) has estimated the requirement of funds for 100 percent coverage of the urban population under safe water supply and sanitation services by the year 2021 at Rs 172,905 crores. Estimates by Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) indicate that the amount required for urban transport infrastructure investment in cities with population 100,000 or more during the next 20 years would be of the order of Rs. 207,000 crore.

The speed of urbanization poses an unprecedented managerial and policy challenge, says the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) report. Unfortunately, India has not even started to engage in a national discussion on how to effectively handle the seismic shift in the demographic make-up of the country.

Unlike many countries that are grappling with aging population, India has a young and rapidly growing population—a potential demographic dividend. But, India needs thriving cities if that dividend is to pay out. New research by the MGI estimates that cities could generate 70 percent of new jobs created in 2030, produce more than 70 percent of Indian GDP, and drive a near four-fold increase in per capita incomes across the nation.

It is estimated that in terms of both population and GDP many Indian cities will become larger than many countries today. The GDP of Mumbai Metropolitan Region is projected to reach $265 billion by 2030, larger that the GDP of countries like Portugal, Colombia and Malaysia.

Besides, as India’s cities will expand, the economic make-up will also change. In 1995, India’s GDP split almost evenly between its urban and rural economies. In 2008, urban GDP accounted for 58 percent of overall GDP. By 2030, as per the MGI report, urban India will generate nearly 70 percent of country’s GDP.

Cities offer the promise of a higher quality of life for a large number of Indians. They are also vital for funding the development because they generate 80-85 percent of tax revenue. As per the MGI report, cities benefit beyond their own boundaries. Rural populations adjoining urban centres have been found to have an estimated 10 to 20 percent higher monthly incomes than the rural average.

Lack of vision among the political class and administrators is leading the Indian cities towards decay and gridlock. The MGI report believes that the “lack of serious policies to manage urbanization could jeopardize even the GDP growth rate (as projected by economic planners).”

Urban India is today failing many of its citizens. Across all major quality-of-life indicators, cities of India fall much short of delivering even a basic standard of living to the residents. As per the MGI report, if India continues to invest in urban infrastructure at its current rate—very low by international standards—in 20 years’ time the urban infrastructure will fall woefully short of what is necessary to sustain prosperous cities.

Life of the city dweller would become a lot tougher. Water shortage will result in a large section of the population having no access to potable water. More than 70 percent of the sewage will remain untreated, causing serious health problems. Increasing number of private vehicles and shortcomings in the public transportation infrastructure would create urban gridlock—similar to the acute congestion that cripples some Latin American cities.

In per capita terms, India’s annual capital spending on urban infrastructure and services of $17 is only 14 percent of China’s $116 and 4 percent of UK’s $391. The MGI report estimates that India needs to invest $1.2 trillion (Rs 53.1 trillion) just on capital expenditure in its cities over the next 20 years, equivalent to $134 per capita per year. That is almost eight times the current level of spending.

International experience has shown that cities can be turned around in about ten years or even less. UK, China and South Africa have done it. As per the MGI report, the planners have to work on five dimensions for effective result: funding, governance, planning, sectoral policies and shape.

Funding: The MGI report suggests four sources of funding that India should tap into—monetizing land assets, collecting higher property taxes and user charges that reflect costs, debt and public-private partnerships, and formula-based government funding.

Governance: India’s large cities are still governed by bureaucrats who can be transferred out of office at a short notice. This is in sharp contrast to large cities world-wide where the mayors have been empowered with long tenures and clear accountability. According to the MGI report, fully formed metropolitan authorities with clearly defined roles are absolutely essential for the successful management of large cities.

Planning: India’s urban planning is in very poor state. There are urban plans but they are not practical, are rarely followed and are riddled with exemptions. As per the MGI report, central to planning in any city is the optimal allocation of space, especially land use and Floor Area Ratio (FAR) planning. These plans need to be detailed, comprehensive and enforceable, and exemptions should be rare.

Sectoral policies: All good cities have policies in critical areas like job creation, affordable housing for low-income groups, public transportation and climate-change mitigation. As per the MGI report, India has largely failed to embrace the need for dedicated policy attention within cities. In the absence of policy to meet the housing needs of low-income group, Indian cities will continue to be effected by the slum menace.

Shape: India has to aim for a distributed model of urbanization to ensure its federal structure as also to ensure that migration flows are not unbalanced towards a particular city or cities. MGI report concludes that India should build at least 25 new satellite cities near today’s Tier 1 and 2 cities to accommodate populations in each of up to one million people. Such an effort, despite being more expensive than renewing existing cities, will act as a benchmark and a model for well-planned, environmentally sustainable world-class cities, while helping ease of the strains of rapid urbanization.

Integrated townships
Typically, an integrated township has the following key characteristics and elements:

Social infrastructure:
School: A quality school with education up to at least 10thstandard is set up within the township, reducing the travelling time between home and school and in turn providing the children with more time for play and studies.
Medicare: A good healthcare facility with at least 50-plus beds and an emergency care is set up within the township, thereby facilitating residents.
Recreation: Adequate space for basic sports such as football, cricket, tennis and badminton, fitness facilities including a gymnasium and swimming pools are set up within the township to enhance social lifestyle.
Community centre: A spacious, well-decorated community centre with a club house and a function hall is set up within the township.

Infrastructure and services:
Road network: A well-planned road network both within the township and connecting to the nearest highway or main road is built, thereby easing communication.
Water supply and management: A well-planned and sustainable water management system is built within the township, providing round the clock water supply to residents as well as treating the waste water generated within the township and recycling it. This also reduces dependence on municipal water supply.
Electricity supply and management: Although an integrated township depends on a public or private utility supplier for basic power supply, it has adequate, if not abundant, back-up power for both homes and common areas during temporary or scheduled power cuts or disruptions by the utility supplier.
Communication infrastructure: Good quality telecom services are also made available within the township and nearby.

Estate management:
Garbage and waste management: Good garbage collection, aggregation, treatment and disposal system is a must for a healthier and eco-friendly township.
Infrastructure maintenance: Proper and regular maintenance of roads, pathways, parks, electrical and plumbing infrastructure, children play areas and common areas including community centre is essential for a well-developed integrated township.
Security: Superior estate security and safety for all residents is a critical element of an integrated township.

Shopping and entertainment:
Entertainment: Quality cinema or multiplex, popular games and kid entertainment facilities should be established within the township.
Shopping: Well-stocked grocery stores as well as shopping centres including branded garment stores, electronic goods should be established within the township.
Food courts: Good quality and hygienic food courts with ample menu options should be established within the townships to cater to the taste buds of all types of residents.

Proximity to workplace:
While the intent of an integrated township is always to have the workplace and the residential dwelling in close proximity, in the current context of double-income families, it is practically impossible to achieve this objective fully. However, it can establish adequate, well-equipped office space infrastructure and offer lower rentals to attract companies, banks and corporate houses and create ample opportunities for residents. Apart from this, to smoothen communication between the township and the workplace for rest of the residents, the location of the township should be such that it is easily accessible from various parts of the city.

Constitution (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act 1992
This is a revolutionary piece of legislation by which Constitution of India was amended to incorporate a separate Chapter on urban local bodies, which seeks to redefine their role, power, function and finances. The salient features of this Act are:
Urban local bodies, to be known as Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils and Nagar Panchayat depending on the population shall be constituted through universal adult franchise in each notified urban area of the country.

These shall be constituted for a period of five years and if dissolved earlier, an election to reconstitute it shall be completed before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.

Not less than one-third of total number of seats in each urban local body shall be reserved for women.

The Legislature of a State may by law entrust on these bodies such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institution of local self government, including those listed in the Twelfth Schedule.

The Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution— has listed the following functions of the urban local bodies:
—Urban Planning including town planning.
—Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings.
—Planning for economic and social development.
—Roads and bridges.
—Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes.
—Public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management.
—Fire services.
—Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects.
—Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including the handicapped and mentally retarded.
—Slum improvement and up-gradation.
—Urban poverty alleviation.
—Provision of Urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds.
—Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects.
—Burials and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoriums.
—Cattle pounds; prevention of cruelty to animals.
—Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths.
—Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public conveniences.
—Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries.

In order that the urban local bodies can perform the functions assigned to them, the Legislature of a State shall assign them specific taxes, duties, tolls and levies and authorise them to impose, collect and appropriate the same.

Each State shall also constitute a Finance Commission which shall review the financial position of the urban local bodies and recommend the principles which should govern the devolution of resources, including grant-in-aid from the Consolidated Fund of the State of these bodies.

The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of, all elections to the urban local bodies shall vest in the State Election Commission.

In each district a District Planning Committee shall be constituted to consolidate the plan prepared by the urban and rural local bodies.

Similarly for each metropolitan area a Metropolitan Planning Committee shall be constituted to prepare a development plan for the metropolitan area a whole.

Constitution (74th Amendment) Act 1992 has made the urban local bodies into vibrant self governing institutions. This has ushered in a new era of urban governance and urban management in India.